Freedom of Expression, Democracy, and Family Are Examples of _________________ in U.s. Culture.

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Glossary

Absolute poverty The condition of having too little income to buy the necessities-- nutrient, shelter, clothing, wellness intendance.

Achieved status A social position (condition) obtained through an individual'southward ain talents and efforts.

Affirmative activeness The requirement that employers make special efforts to recruits hire and promote qualified members of previously excluded groups including women and minorities.

Aggregate A collection of unrelated people who practise not know one another but who may occupy a common space--for example, a crowd of people crossing a city street.

Agrarian societies Societies in which large scale cultivation using plows and draft animals is the primary means of subsistence.

Breach The separation or estrangement of individuals from themselves and from others.

Amalgamation The biological besides as cultural absorption (merging) of racial or ethnic groups.

Anomalies In science observations or problems that cannot be explained or solved in terms of a prevailing paradigm.

Anomie A breakup or defoliation in the norms, values, and culture of a group or a order. A condition of relative normlessness.

Anomie theory The theory suggesting that deviance and crime occur when at that place is an acute gap betwixt cultural norms and goals and the socially structured opportunities for individuals to achieve those goals.

Anticipatory socialization The procedure of taking on the attitudes values and behaviors of a condition or role i expects to occupy in the futurity.

Apartheid The recent policy of racial separation in South Africa enforced past legal political and military power.

Ascribed condition A social position (status) such as sexual activity, race, and social class that a person acquires at birth.

Assimilation The merging of minority and majority groups into one grouping with a come mon civilization and identity.

Association A group of people bound together by mutual goals and rules, only not necessarily by shut personal ties.

Athletics A form of sport that is closer to piece of work than to play.

Authority Ability regarded as legitimate.

Autocracy Rule or government concentrated in a single ruler or grouping of leaders who are willing to use force to maintain command.

Baby boom The people who were born in the Usa betwixt 1946 and 1965. This group represented a precipitous increase in birth rates and in the accented number of births compared to pre-1946 levels.

Bias The influence of a scientist's personal values and attitudes on scientific observations and conclusions.

Bicultural The capacity to understand and part well in more than 1 cultural grouping.

Birth rate Number of births per year per chiliad women 15 to 44 years onetime.

Bureaucracy A large-calibration formal system with centralized authority, a hierarchical chain of command, explicit rules and procedures, and an emphasis on formal positions rather than on persons.

Calling The thought in certain branches of ascetic Protestantism that one tin can live acceptably to God by fulfilling the obligations imposed past one's secular position in the world.

Capitalism A course of economic arrangement in which private individuals accumulate and invest majuscule, own the means of production, and control profits.

Degree system A closed organization of social stratification in which prestige and social relationships are based on hereditary position at birth.

Centrally planned economy An economic arrangement that includes public ownership of or control over all productive resources and whose action is planned by the authorities.

Charisma The exceptional mystical or fifty-fifty supernatural quality of personality attributed to a person by others. Literally, "the gift of grace."

Charismatic leader An individual who enlists the strong emotional support of followers through personal and seemingly supernatural qualities.

Charter The chapters of certain schools to confer special rights on their graduates.

Church A formally organized, institutionalized religious organization with formal and traditional religious doctrine, beliefs, and practices.

City A relatively permanent settlement of big numbers of people who do not grow or assemble their ain food.

Civil police force The co-operative of police force that deals largely with wrongs against the individual.

Civil religion The interweaving of religious and political symbols in public life.

Class Position in a social hierarchy based on prestige and/or property buying.

Grade conflict The struggle between competing classes, specifically between the class that owns the means of production and the grade or classes that exercise not.

Class consciousness The sense of common grade position and shared interests held by members of a social course.

Class organization A organisation of stratification based primarily on the unequal ownership and control of economical resources.

Airtight system In organizational theory, the degree to which an system is shut off from its environs.

Coercion A form of social interaction in which one is made to do something through the use of social pressure, threats, or forcefulness.

Cognitive evolution The systematic improvement of intellectual ability through a series of stages.

Cognitive evolution theory Suggests that individuals try to blueprint their lives and experiences to grade a reasonably consistent picture of their behavior, actions, and values.

Cohort Persons who share something in common, unremarkably being born in the same year or time flow.

Commitment Willingness of members of a group to practice what is needed to maintain the group.

Customs A collection of people in a geographical expanse; may too include the thought that the drove has a social structure and a sense of community spirit or belonging.

Comparable worth A policy of equal pay for men and women doing like piece of work, even if the jobs are labeled differently by sex activity.

Competition A goal-directed class of social interaction in which the goals or objects pursued are limited, and then not all competitors can reach them. Competitive behavior is governed by rules and limitations (restraints) .

Complementary marriages Marriages in which husband and wife take distinctly separate family roles.

Concentric-zone theory A theory of urban evolution holding that cities grow around a central business organization district in concentric zones, with each zone devoted to a unlike land use.

Concept A formal definition of what is being studied.

Conflict A form of social interaction involving direct struggle between individuals or groups over commonly valued resources or goals. Differs from competition considering individuals are more interested in defeating an opponent than in achieving a goal.

Conflict arroyo 1 of the major theoretical perspectives in sociology: emphasizes the importance of unequal power and conflict in club. Weberian conflict theorists stress inequality and conflict based on class, status, power; Marxian theorists emphasize disharmonize and inequality based on ownership of the ways of production.

Conformity Going along with the norms or behaviors of a grouping.

Conjugal family unit A form of family unit arrangement centered effectually the husband-wife relationship rather than around blood relationships.

Consolidated Metropolitan Statistical Area (CMSA) A "supercity" with more than ane million people. There were 21 such cities in the United States in 1984.

Contact hypothesis The theory that people of different racial groups who became acquainted would be less prejudiced toward one another.

Contagion theory Le Bon's theory that the anonymity people feel in a crowd makes them susceptible to the suggestions of fanatical leaders, and that emotions tin sweep through such a crowd like a virus.

Content analysis A enquiry method used to depict and analyze in an objective and systematic fashion the content of literature, speeches, or other media presentations. The method helps to identify cultural themes or trends.

Content of socialization The ideas, beliefs, values, knowledge, and so forth that are presented to people who are existence socialized.

Contest mobility The educational pattern in which selection for academic and university didactics is delayed and children compete throughout their schooling for high positions.

Context of socialization The setting or arena within which socialization occurs.

Continued subjugation The employ of force and ideology by one grouping to retain domination over another grouping.

Control group A grouping that is not exposed to the independent variable of involvement to a researcher but whose members' backgrounds and experience are otherwise similar those of the experimental group that is exposed to the independent variable.

Controlling for In enquiry, the endeavor to hold constant factors that might be influencing observed changes in the dependent variable.

Convergence theory A theory suggesting that modernizing nations come up to resemble i another over time. In commonage behavior, a theory suggesting that certain crowds attract item types of people, who may behave irrationally.

Cooperation A form of social interaction involving collaborative endeavour among people to achieve a common goal.

Cooptation A social procedure past which people who might otherwise threaten the stability or existence of an system are brought into the leadership or policy-making structure of that organization.

Correlation An observed clan between a modify in the value of one variable and a change in the value of another variable.

Counterculture A subculture whose norms and values sharply contradict the dominant norms and values of the society in which it occurs.

Creationism A theory that sees all major types of living things, including people, every bit having been fabricated by the direct artistic action of God in six days.

Credential The educational degree or certificate used to determine a person'southward eligibility for a position.

Criminal offense A behavior prohibited by constabulary.

Criminal law Constabulary enacted past recognized political authorities that prohibits or requires sure behaviors.

Criteria for inferring causality Prove that two variables are correlated and that the hypothesized cause preceded the hypothesized effect in fourth dimension, besides as evidence eliminating rival hypotheses.

Rough birth charge per unit The full number of live births per k persons in a population within a particular twelvemonth.

Crude death rate The number of deaths per 1000 persons occurring within a one-year period in a particular population.

Cult An organized group of people who together act out religious feelings, attitudes, and relationships; may focus on an unusual grade of worship or belief.

Cultural capital Symbolic wealth socially divers as worthy of beingness sought and possessed.

Cultural alter Modifications or transformations of a culture'due south customs, values, ideas, or artifacts.

Cultural determinism The view that the nature of a society is shaped primarily by the ideas and values of the people living in it.

Cultural sectionalization of labor A state of affairs in which a person's place in the occupational world is adamant by his or her cultural markers (such as ethnicity).

Cultural imposition The forcing of members of one culture to prefer the practices of some other culture.

Cultural relativism The view that the customs and ideas of a society must be viewed inside the context of that society.

Cultural revolution The repudiation of many existing cultural elements and the exchange of new ones.

Cultural universals Cultural features, such equally the use of language, shared by all human societies.

Culture The common heritage shared by the people of a society, consisting of customs, values, language, ideas, and artifacts.

Culture lag The fourth dimension difference between the introduction of material innovations and resulting changes in cultural practices.

Civilization of poverty A distinctive civilisation thought to develop among poor people and characterized past failure to delay gratification, fatalism, and weak family and community ties.

Civilisation pattern theory In the sociology of sport, a theory that explains aggression and violence in sport as learned behavior that mirrors the caste of assailment and violence in the society.

Cyclical theories Theories of social change suggesting that societies follow a certain life course, from vigorous and innovative youth to more materialistic maturity and then to pass up.

Deduction Reasoning from the full general to the specific.

Defining the situation The socially created perspective that people utilise to a situation.

Democracy A form of political organisation in which power resides with the people and is exercised by them.

Democratic-collective organization An organization in which authority is placed in the group as a whole, rules are minimized, members have considerable command over their piece of work, and job differentiation is minimized.

Demographic transition The demographic modify experienced in Western Europe and Due north America since the industrial revolution in which the birth charge per unit has declined then that information technology is virtually equal to the decease rate.

Demography The scientific study of population size, composition, and distribution as well as patterns of change in those features.

Denomination 1 of a number of religious organizations in a order with no official state church. Has some formal doctrines, behavior, and practices, only tolerates diverse religious views.

Dependency theory A theory near the identify of developing nations in the globe economic system suggesting that major industrial nations take advantage of the cheap labor and raw materials of developing nations and hence are reluctant to meet them become industrialized.

Dependent variable The variable that occurs or changes in a patterned manner due to the presence of, or changes in, another variable or variables.

Descriptive study A enquiry written report whose goal is to describe the social phenomena being studied.

Deskilling The process of breaking down jobs into less circuitous segments that require less knowledge and judgment on the part of workers.

Deterrence theory The view that certain qualities of penalization-- such as certainty, swiftness, and severity-- will help prevent others from committing crimes that have been so punished.

Deviance Behaviors or characteristics that violate of import social norms.

Deviant career The regular pursuit of activities regarded by the private and by others as deviant.

Differential association A theory that attributes the existence of deviant behavior to learning from friends or associates.

Differentiation, functional The division of labor or of social roles inside a society or an organization.

Differentiation, rank The diff placement and evaluation of various social positions.

Diffusion The spread of inventions and discoveries from one group or civilization to another on a voluntary basis; a source of cultural change.

Discovery The uncovering of something that existed only was unknown; a source of cultural change.

Discrimination The unequal and unfair treatment of individuals or groups on the basis of some irrelevant characteristic, such as race, ethnicity, religion, sex activity, or social course.

Division of labor The assignment of specialized tasks to various members of a group, organization, community, or society.

Dominant status One social position that overshadows the other social positions an individual occupies.

Domination The control of one group or individual past another.

Double standard A set of social norms that allows males greater freedom of sexual expression, particularly before matrimony, than females.

Dramaturgical analysis An arroyo to social situations developed by Erving Goffman in which they are examined as though they were theatrical productions.

Dual-career families Families in which both married man and wife have careers.

Dual-career responsibilities The responsibilities of women who are wives too every bit workers‹ often used to explain why women earn less.

Dual economy The conceptual division of the private sector of the economy into monopoly (core) and competitive (periphery) sectors.

Dyad A group composed of two people.

Dysfunction Any result of a social organization that disturbs or hinders the integration, adjustment, or stability of the system.

Ecological paradigm A theory of land utilize and living patterns that examines the interplay among economic functions, geographical factors, demography, and the replacement of one group past another.

Ecological succession In urban sociology, the replacement of one group by another over time.

Ecological view An arroyo to the study of culture or other social phenomena that emphasizes the importance of examining climate, food and water supplies, and existing enemies in the environments.

Ecology The scientific study of how organisms chronicle to i another and to their environments.

Economic core The sector of the economy characterized by large, generally very profitable, oligopolistic firms that are national or multinational in scope; also chosen the monopoly sector.

Economic growth An increase in the corporeality of goods and services produced with the same corporeality of labor and resources.

Economic establishment The design of roles, norms, and activities organized around the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services in a lodge.

Economic periphery The sector of the economy characterized by small, local, barely profitable firms; besides called the competitive sector.

Ecosystem A system formed past the interaction of a community of organisms with its environment.

Education The procedure, in school or across, of transmitting a society's knowledge, skills, values, and behaviors.

Egalitarian marriage A family unit in which married man and wife share as in family unit decision making.

Ego In Freudian theory, a concept referring to the conscious, rational part of the personality structure, which mediates between the impulses of the id and the rules of society.

Elderly dependency ratio The ratio between the number of the elderly (65 and over) and the number of working-age people (ages eighteen to 64).

Emergent norm theory A theory of collective behavior suggesting that people movement to form a shared definition of the state of affairs in relatively normless situations.

Emotion work An individual'southward endeavor to change an emotion or feeling to 1 that seems to be more advisable to a given situation.

Equilibrium In functionalist theory, the view that the parts of a society fit together into a balanced whole.

Indigenous group A grouping that shares a mutual cultural tradition and sense of identity.

Ethnocentrism The trend to run into ane'southward own civilisation as superior to all others.

Ethnography A detailed written report based on actual observation of the style of life of a human group or society.

Ethnomethodology The study of the methods used by individuals to communicate and make sense of their everyday lives as members of order. Many ethnomethodologists focus on the study of language and everyday chat.

Evangelicalism A form of Protestantism that stresses the preaching of the gospel of Jesus Christ, the validity of personal conversion, the Bible as the footing for belief, and active preaching of the religion.

Evolutionary theories Theories of social change that see societies as evolving from simpler forms to more complex ones. In biology, the theory that living organisms develop new traits that may aid their adaptation or survival.

Exchange A form of social interaction involving trade of tangibles (objects) or intangibles (sentiments) between individuals.

Exchange theory An interpretive perspective that explains social interaction on the basis of the exchange of various tangible or intangible social rewards.

Experiment A carefully controlled state of affairs where the independent variable is manipulated while everything else remains the aforementioned; the aim is to meet whether the dependent variable will change.

Experimental group In research, the group of individuals exposed to the independent variable that is being introduced by the experimenter.

Explanatory study A enquiry study with the goal of explaining how or why things happen the way they exercise in the social earth.

Expressive A type of function that involves the showing of emotional feelings or preferences in interpersonal relationships.

Expressive leader A grouping leader whose role in the grouping is to help maintain stability through joking, mediating conflicts, and otherwise reducing tension.

Extended family unit A family unit in which relatives from several generations live together.

Face up-work A term used by Goffman to refer to the deportment taken by individuals to make their behavior appear consequent with the image they want to present.

Fads Striking behaviors that spread rapidly and that, even though embraced enthusiastically, remain popular for just a brusque time.

Family Two or more than persons who are related past claret, matrimony, adoption, or serious long-term commitment to each other, and who live together. They ordinarily form an economic unit, and developed members intendance for the dependent children.

Fashion A socially canonical but temporary manner of appearance or behavior.

Flow An feel of total involvement in one's nowadays activity.

Folkways Social norms to which people generally conform, although they receive little pressure to exercise and then.

Formal organizations Highly structured groups with specific objectives and commonly conspicuously stated rules and regulations.

Formal sanction A social reward or penalty that is administered in an organized, systematic fashion, such equally receiving a diploma or getting a fine.

Functional approach A theoretical approach that analyzes social phenomena in terms of their functions in a social system.

Functional equivalent A feature or process in society that has the same function (issue) as some other feature or process

Functions The consequences of social phenomena for other parts of order or for society as a whole.

Fundamentalism A form of religious traditionalism characterized by the literal estimation of religious texts, a formulation of an agile supernatural, and articulate distinctions between sin and salvation.

Game A course of play involving competitive or cooperative interaction in which the outcome is determined by concrete skill, strength, strategy, or chance.

Gemeinschaft A term used by Tonnies to depict a pocket-size, traditional, community-centered lodge in which people have close, personal, face-to-face relationships and value social relationships equally ends in themselves.

Gender The traits and behaviors that are socially designated as "masculine" or "feminine" in a detail gild.

Gender differences Variations in the social positions, roles, behaviors, attitudes, and personalities of men and women in a society.

Gender gap Differences in the way men and women vote.

Gender-part expectations People's beliefs nigh how men and women should deport.

Gender stratification The hierarchical ranking of men and women and their roles in terms of unequal buying, power, social control, prestige, and social rewards.

Generalized other A general idea of the expectations, attitudes, and values of a group or customs.

Genocide The destruction of an entire population.

Gentrification The movement of middle-class and upper-middle-class persons (usually white) into lower-income, sometimes minority urban areas.

Gesellschaft A term used past Tonnies to draw an urban industrial society in which people take impersonal, formal, contractual, and specialized relationships and tend to employ social relationships as a means to an cease.

Global economy An economy in which the economic life and health of ane nation depends on what happens in other nations.

Green revolution The comeback in agricultural product based on higher-yielding grains and increased employ of fertilizers, pesticides, and irrigation.

Groups Collections of people who share some common goals and norms and whose relationships are usually based on interactions.

Groupthink The tendency of individuals to follow the ideas or actions of a group.

Wellness maintenance organizations (HMOs) Organizations that people pay a fee to join in return for admission to a range of health services.

Heterosexual A person whose preferred partner for erotic, emotional, and sexual interaction is someone of the opposite sex activity.

Hierarchy The arrangement of positions in a rank social club, with those below reporting to those above.

Hispanics A full general term referring to Spanish-speaking persons. It includes many singled-out ethnic groups.

Homosexual Someone who is emotionally, erotically, and physically attracted to persons of his or her own sex.

Horizontal mobility Movement from one social condition to some other of about equal rank in the social hierarchy.

Horticultural societies Societies in which the cultivation of plants with hoes is the primary means of subsistence.

Hospice An organization designed to provide care and comfort for terminally ill persons and their families.

Human-capital explanation The view that the earnings of unlike workers vary because of differences in their teaching or experience.

Hunting and gathering societies Societies that obtain nutrient past hunting animals, fishing, and gathering fruits, nuts, and grains. These societies do not plant crops or have domesticated animals.

Hybrid economy An economic organization that blends features of both centrally planned and capitalist (market) economies.

Hyperinflation Anextreme form of inflation.

Hypothesis A tentative statement asserting a human relationship betwixt one cistron and something else (based on theory, prior inquiry, or general observation).

Id In Freudian theory, a concept referring to the unconscious instinctual impulses-- for instance, sexual or aggressive impulses.

Ideal values Values that people say are important to them, whether or not their behavior supports those values.

Identification theories Views suggesting that children learn gender roles past identifying with and copying the same-sex parent.

Ideology A arrangement of ideas that reflects, rationalizes, and defends the interests of those who believe in information technology.

Impression management A term used by Goffman to describe the efforts of individuals to influence how others perceive them.

Incest Sexual intercourse with close family members.

Incest taboo The prohibition of sexual intercourse between fathers and daughters, mothers and sons, and brothers and sisters.

Income The sum of money wages and salaries (earnings) plus income other than earnings.

Contained variable The variable whose occurrence or change results in the occurrence or change of some other variable; the hypothesized crusade of something else.

Individualism A belief in individual rights and responsibilities.

Induction Reasoning from the particular to the general.

Industrialization The shift within a nation's economy from a primarily agricultural base to a manufacturing base of operations.

Industrialized societies Societies that rely on mechanized production, rather than on human being or animal labor, equally the primary means of subsistence.

Inflation An increase in the supply of money in circulation that exceeds the rate of economic growth, making money worth less in relation to the goods and services it can buy.

Informal sanction A social reward or penalization that is given informally through social interaction, such as an approval grinning or a disapproving frown.

Innovation The discovery or invention of new ideas, things, or methods; a source of cultural alter.

Instinct A genetically determined beliefs triggered by specific conditions or events.

Establishment of scientific discipline The social communities that share certain theories and methods aimed at understanding the physical and social worlds.

Institutionalization of science The establishment of careers for practicing scientists in major social institutions.

Institutionalized Social practices that have become established, patterned, and predictable and that are supported past custom, tradition, and/or law.

Institutions The patterned and indelible roles, statuses, and norms that have formed around successful strategies for coming together basic social needs.

Instrumental A type of role that involves problem-solving or task-oriented beliefs in group or interpersonal relationships.

Instrumental leader A group leader whose part is to keep the grouping's attention directed to the task at hand.

Interest grouping A group of people who piece of work to influence political decisions affecting them.

Intergenerational mobility A vertical alter of social status from i generation to the next.

Interlocking directorates The practice of overlapping memberships on corporate boards of directors.

Intermittent reinforcement In learning theory, the provision of a reward sometimes but non e'er when a desired behavior is shown.

Internalization The process of taking social norms, roles, and values into one'south own mind.

Interpretive arroyo One of the major theoretical perspectives in sociology; focuses on how individuals brand sense of the earth and react to the symbolic meanings fastened to social life.

Intragenerational mobility A vertical change of social status experienced by an individual within his or her own lifetime.

Invention An innovation in textile or nonmaterial culture, frequently produced by combining existing cultural elements in new ways; a source of cultural change.

"I" portion of the self In George Herbert Mead'south view, the spontaneous or impulsive portion of the cocky.

IQ (intelligence caliber) test A standardized prepare of questions or bug designed to measure verbal and numerical knowledge and reasoning.

"Atomic number 26 law of oligarchy" In Robert Michels' view, the idea that power in an system tends to become full-bodied in the hands of a small-scale group of leaders.

Keynesian economics The economic theory advanced by John Maynard Keynes, which holds that government intervention, through arrears spending, may be necessary to maintain loftier levels of employment.

Kinship Socially defined family unit relationships, including those based on common parentage, marriage, or adoption.

Labeling theory A theory of deviance that focuses on the process by which some people are labeled deviant by other people (and thus take on deviant identities) rather than on the nature of the behavior itself.

Labor-market place division The existence of two or more distinct labor markets, one of which is open but to individuals of a particular gender or ethnicity.

Laissez-faire economics The economic theory advanced by Adam Smith, which holds that the economic system develops and functions best when left to market forces, without government intervention.

Linguistic communication Spoken or written symbols combined into a organization and governed past rules.

Latent function The unintended and/or unrecognized function or consequence of some thing or process in a social system.

Police The system of formalized rules established by political government and backed by the power of the state for the purpose of controlling or regulating social beliefs.

Learning theory In psychology, the theory that specific human behaviors are caused or forgotten as a result of the rewards or punishments associated with them.

Legal protection The protection of minority-group members through the official policy of a governing unit.

Legitimate In reference to power, the sense by people in a situation that those who are exercising ability accept the correct to do and then.

Lesbian A woman who is emotionally, erotically, and physically attracted to other women.

Life chances The probabilities of an individual having access to or failing to have access to various opportunities or difficulties in society.

Life course The biological and social sequence of birth, growing up, maturity, aging, and death.

Life-grade analysis An examination of the ways in which unlike stages of life influence socialization and beliefs.

Life expectancy The boilerplate years of life anticipated for people born in a particular year.

Life-style Family, child-bearing, and educational attitudes and practices; personal values; type of residence; consumer, political, and civic behavior; religion.

Life tabular array A statistical table that presents the decease rate and life expectancy of each of a series of age-sex categories for a particular population.

Line job A task that is role of the central operations of an organization rather than one that provides support services for the operating structure.

Lobbying The process of trying to influence political decisions so they will exist favorable to i's interests and goals.

Location In Kanter's view, a person'south position in an organization with respect to having command over decision making.

Looking-glass self The sense of cocky an individual derives from the way others view and treat him or her.

Macro level An analysis of societies that focuses on big-scale institutions, structures, and processes.

Magic According to Malinowski, "a applied art consisting of acts which are but ways to a definite end expected to follow."

Manifest function The intended part or effect of some thing or process in a social system.

Marriage A social institution that recognizes and approves the sexual spousal relationship of 2 or more than individuals and includes a set of mutual rights and obligations.

Marriage rate Number of marriages in a year per grand single women 15 to 44 years old.

Marriage squeeze A situation in which the eligible individuals of 1 sex outnumber the supply of potential matrimony partners of the other sex.

Marxian approach A theory that uses the ideas of Karl Marx and stresses the importance of course struggle centered around the social relations of economic production.

Mass hysteria Widely felt fearfulness and anxiety.

Mass media Widely disseminated forms of communication, such as books, magazines, radio, television set, and movies.

Matthew effect The social procedure whereby one advantage an individual has is probable to lead to additional advantages.

Mean, arithmetic The sum of a set of mathematical values divided past the number of values; a measure of fundamental tendency in a serial of data.

Median The number that cuts a distribution of figures in half; a positional measure of central tendency in a series of data.

Medicaid A federal-state matching programme that provides medical assistance to sure low income persons.

Medicare A federal health insurance plan. Individuals are eligible if they receive Social Security benefits, federal disability benefits, or sometimes if they have cease-stage kidney affliction.

"Me" portion of the self In George Herbert Mead'due south view, the portion of the self that brings the influence of others into the individual'southward consciousness.

Method of comparing An arroyo that compares one subgroup or society with some other i for the purpose of agreement social differences.

Methodology The rules, principles, and practices that guide the collection of prove and the conclusions drawn from it.

Metropolitan Statistical Area (MSA) A geographical surface area containing either one city with 50,000 or more residents or an urban area of at least fifty,000 inhabitants and a total population of at least 100,000 (except in New England where the required total is 75,000).

Micro level An analysis of societies that focuses on small-calibration process, such as how individuals interact and how they adhere meanings to the social actions of others.

Migration The relatively permanent movement of people from one area to some other.

Millenarian movements Social movements based on the expectation that society will be suddenly transformed through supernatural intervention.

Minority group Any recognizable racial, religious, indigenous, or social group that suffers from some disadvantage resulting from the action of a dominant group with higher social condition and greater privileges.

Mode The value that occurs most often in a series of mathematical values.

Modeling Copying the behavior of admired people.

Modernization The economic and social transformation that occurs when a traditional agricultural social club becomes highly industrialized.

Monopoly The exclusive command of a detail industry, market place, service, or commodity by a single organisation.

Mores Strongly held social norms, a violation of which causes a sense of moral outrage.

Bloodshed rate The number of deaths per g in a population.

Multinational corporation A corporation that locates its operations in a number of nations.

Multiple-nuclei theory A theory of urban evolution belongings that cities develop around a number of unlike centers, each with its own special activities.

Nation A relatively democratic political grouping that usually shares a mutual language and a item geography.

Nation-state A social system in which political authority overlaps a cultural and geographical community.

Negative sanctions Actions intended to deter or punish unwanted social behaviors.

Negotiation A form of social interaction in which two or more parties in conflict or competition arrive at a mutually satisfactory agreement.

Network See Social network.

Nomadic Societies that move their residences from place to place.

Nonverbal communication Visual and other meaningful symbols that practice non use language.

Norm A shared dominion nigh acceptable or unacceptable social behavior.

Normal science A term used by Kuhn to depict research based on ane or more than past scientific achievements that are accepted every bit a useful foundation for farther study.

Nuclear family A family class consisting of a married couple and their children.

Objectivity Procedures researchers follow to minimize distortions in observation or interpretation due to personal or social values.

Occupation A position in the world of piece of work that involves specialized knowledge and activities.

Occupational segregation The concentration of workers by gender or ethnicity into certain jobs but not others.

Oligarchy The dominion of the many past the few.

Oligopoly The control of a particular industry, market, service, or commodity by a few large organizations.

Open arrangement In organizational theory, the degree to which an organization is open up to and dependent on its environment.

Operationalization In research, the actual procedures or operations conducted to measure a variable.

Opportunity In an organisation, the potential that a particular position contains for the expansion of piece of work responsibilities and rewards.

Organization A social grouping deliberately formed to pursue certain values and goals.

Organizational ritualism A grade of behavior in organizations, specially in bureaucracies, in which people follow the rules and regulations and so closely that they forget the purpose of those rules and regulations.

Organizational waste The inefficient utilise of ideas, expertise, money, or cloth in an organization.

Panic A frightened response by an amass of people to an immediate threat.

Paradigm In the folklore of scientific discipline, a coherent tradition of scientific law, theory, and assumptions that forms a distinct arroyo to issues.

Parallel spousal relationship When married man and wife both piece of work and share household tasks.

Participant ascertainment A research method in which the researcher does observation while taking part in the activities of the social group being studied.

Pastoral societies Societies in which the raising and herding of animals such as sheep, goats, and cows is the primary ways of subsistence.

Patriarchal family A form of family organization in which the male parent is the formal caput of the family.

Peer group Friends and associates of about the same age and social condition.

Play Spontaneous activity undertaken freely for its own sake yet governed by rules and oftentimes characterized by an element of brand-believe.

Pluralism In indigenous relations, the condition that exists when both majority and minority groups value their distinct cultural identities, and at the same fourth dimension seek economic and political unity. In political folklore, the view that order is composed of competing interest groups, with power diffused among them.

Policy research Inquiry designed to assess alternative possibilities for public or social action, in terms of their costs and/or consequences.

Political economic system model A theory of land use that emphasizes the role of political and economic interests.

Political order The institutionalized system of acquiring and exercising power.

Political party An organized grouping of people that seeks to control or influence political decisions through legal means.

Population In demography, all the people living in a given geographic area. In research, the total number of cases with a particular characteristic.

Population exclusion The efforts of a society to forbid ethnically dissimilar groups from joining it.

Population transfer The efforts of a dominant ethnic grouping to move or remove members of a minority ethnic group from a detail area.

Positive sanctions Rewards for socially desired behavior.

Positivist An arroyo to explaining human action that does non take into account the individual's interpretation of the situation.

Postindustrial lodge A term used by Daniel Bong to refer to societies organized around knowledge and planning rather than around industrial production.

Power The capacity of an private grouping to control or influence the behavior of others, fifty-fifty in the face of opposition.

Power elite According to Mills, a closely connected group of the corporate rich, political leaders, and military commanders who determine almost key social and political issues.

Prejudice A "prejudged" unfavorable attitude toward the members of a particular grouping, who are assumed to possess negative traits.

Prestige A social recognition, respect, and deference accorded individuals or groups based on their social status.

Principal deviance Deviant behavior that is invisible to others, short- lived, or unimportant, and therefore does not contribute to the public labeling of an individual as being deviant.

Primary economic sector The sector of an economic system in which natural resource are gathered or extracted.

Primary group A social group characterized by frequent face-to-face interaction, the delivery and emotional ties members feel for one another, and relative permanence.

Principle of cumulative advantage A process whereby the positive features of some institutions help to generate further benefits for them.

Privatization The tendency of families in industrial societies to plow away from the community and workplace toward a primary focus on privacy, domesticity, and intimacy.

Processes of socialization Those interactions that convey to persons being socialized how they are to speak, comport, think, and experience.

Profession AIR occupation that rests on a theoretical body of cognition and thus requires specialized training usually recognized by the granting of a degree or credential.

Projection A psychological procedure of attributing ones own unacceptable feelings or desires to other people to avoid guilt and self-blame.

Holding The rights and obligations a group or individual has in relation to an object, resources, or activeness.

Proposition A argument about how variables are related to each other.

Prostitution The selling of sexual favors.

Race A classification of humans into groups based on distinguishable physical characteristics that may course the footing for significant social identities.

Racism The institutionalized domination of i racial group by some other.

Random sample A sample of units drawn from a larger population in such a way that every unit of measurement has a known and equal chance of being selected.

Range The total spread of values in a ready of figures .

Rank Identify in a social hierarchy.

Rank differentiation See Differentiation, rank.

Rape A completed sexual assault by a male, usually upon a female, although sometimes upon another male.

Rate of natural increase The divergence between nativity and decease rates, excluding immigration.

Rationalization The process of subjecting social relationships to calculation and administration.

Real values The values people consider truly of import, as evident in their behavior and how they spend their time and money.

Rebellion In anomie theory, a form of deviance that occurs when individuals pass up culturally valued means and goals and substitute new means and goals. In political sociology, the expression of opposition to an established authorisation.

Reference group A social group whose standards and opinions are used past an individual to assistance define or evaluate behavior, values, and behaviors.

Reform movement A blazon of social move that accepts the condition quo only seeks certain specific social reforms.

Regressive movement A blazon of social movement whose aim is to move the social earth dorsum to where members believe it was at an earlier time.

Relative poverty The condition of having much less income than the average person in social club, even if one can afford the necessities of life.

Religion A gear up of shared beliefs and rituals common to a special community and focusing on the sacred and supernatural.

Religious movement An organized religious group with the primary goal of changing existing religious institutions.

Inquiry and development (R&D) Investments in basic research and in the practical application of basic research discoveries.

Enquiry design The specific plan for conducting a research written report, including sampling, measurement, and information assay.

Resocialization The process of socializing people away from a group or activity in which they are involved.

Resources mobilization theory The theory that social movements are affected by their ability to marshal various cardinal resources.

Retreatism In anomie theory, a course of deviance that occurs when individuals carelessness culturally valued ways and goals.

Revolution A large-calibration change in the political leadership of a society and the restructuring of major features of that society.

Revolutionary motility A type of social move whose aim is to reorganize existing gild completely.

Riot A destructive and sometimes violent commonage outburst.

Ascension expectations A situation in which people feel that past hardships should not accept to be suffered in the future.

Ritual In the sociology of organized religion, the rules of conduct concerning behavior in the presence of the sacred. Intended to produce feelings of reverence, awe, and group identity.

Ritualism In anomie theory, a form of deviance in which individuals lose sight of socially valued goals but conform closely to socially prescribed means.

Rival hypothesis An explanation that competes with the original hypothesis in a study.

Role To functionalists, the culturally prescribed and socially patterned behaviors associated with particular social positions. For interactionists, the effort to mesh the demands of a social position with one'due south own identity.

Part aggregating Adding more statuses and roles to the ones an individual already has.

Role conflict A situation in which two or more social roles brand incompatible demands on a person.

Role exit The process of leaving a role that is primal to one's identity and edifice an identity in a new role while also taking into account ane'southward prior office.

Office expectations Unremarkably shared norms about how a person is supposed to carry in a particular role.

Role performance The behaviors of a person performing a sure social part.

Part set The cluster of roles that accompanies a detail status.

Rowdyism Generalized interpersonal violence or property destruction occurring at spectator events.

Ruling class A small-scale class that controls the ways of economic production and dominates political decisions.

Rumor A report that is passed informally from one person to another without house evidence.

Sample survey A systematic method of collecting information from respondents, using personal interviews or written questionnaires.

Sanction A social reward or punishment for canonical or disapproved behavior; can be positive or negative, formal or informal.

Scapegoating Blaming a user-friendly simply innocent person or group for 1's trouble or guilt.

Schooling Formal instruction.

Science An approach used to obtain reliable knowledge about the physical and social worlds, based on systematic empirical observations; the cognition so obtained.

Scientific productivity Making new discoveries, confirming or disconfirming theoretical hypotheses through experimentation and other types of enquiry, and publishing the results of that research.

Scientific revolution The dramatic overthrow of one intellectual paradigm by another.

Secondary deviance Behavior discovered by others and publicly labeled by them as deviant.

Secondary economic sector The sector of an economy in which raw materials are turned into manufactured appurtenances.

Secondary group A social group leap together for the accomplishment of common tasks, with few emotional ties amid members.

Sect An exclusive, highly cohesive group of ascetic religious believers. Sects ordinarily last longer and are more institutionalized than cults.

Sector theory A theory of urban evolution explaining that cities develop in wedge-shaped patterns post-obit transportation systems.

Secularization The erosion of belief in the supernatural. Includes a growing respect for rationality, cultural and religious pluralism, tolerance of moral ambiguity, organized religion in education, and belief in civil rights, the rule of law, and due process.

Cocky-fulfilling prophecy A belief or prediction well-nigh a person or situation that influences that person or situation in such a style that the belief or prediction comes true.

Sex The biological distinction of being male or female.

Sibling A brother or sister.

Social categories Groups of people who may not collaborate but who share certain social characteristics or statuses.

Social change A modification or transformation in the way lodge is organized.

Social form A group'south position in a social hierarchy based on prestige and/or property ownership.

Social construction of reality The procedure of socially creating definitions of situations so that they appear to be natural.

Social control The relatively patterned and systematic means in which society guides and restrains individual behaviors and so that people act in predictable and desirable means.

Social forces The social structures and civilisation individuals face in a society.

Social inequality The existence of diff opportunities or rewards for people in different social positions.

Social interaction The ways people conduct in relation to i some other by ways of language, gestures, and symbols.

Socialist societies Societies in which productive resources are owned and controlled by the state rather than by individuals.

Socialization The process of preparing newcomers to go members of an existing social group by helping them to learn the attitudes and behaviors that are considered appropriate.

Social learning theory A form of learning theory suggesting that people learn through observation and imitation, even though they are not rewarded or punished for certain behaviors.

Social mobility The movement from one status to some other within a stratified order.

Social movement A group of people who work together to guide or suppress particular changes in the way society is organized.

Social network A set of interdependent relations or links betwixt individuals.

Social psychology The scientific study of how individual behavior is socially influenced.

Social relations of production The organization of economic life on the basis of owning or not owning the means of production, purchasing or selling labor power, and decision-making or not controlling other people'due south labor power.

Social sciences Disciplines related to sociology that report human activity and communication, including psychology, anthropology, economics, political science.

Social stratification The fairly permanent ranking of positions in a society in terms of unequal ability, prestige, or privilege.

Social structure Recurrent and patterned relationships among individuals, organizations, nations, or other social units.

Order A group of people with a shared and somewhat distinct culture who live in a divers territory, experience some unity equally a group, and meet themselves equally singled-out from other peoples.

Sociobiology The scientific written report of the biological basis for human beliefs.

Socioeconomic condition (SES) An alphabetize of social condition that considers a person's occupation, educational activity, and income as measures of social status.

Sociology The written report and assay of patterned social relationships in mod societies.

Sovereignty The authority claimed past a state to maintain a legal organization, use coercive power to secure obedience, and maintain its independence from other states.

Sponsored mobility A pattern in which certain children are selected at an early age for academic and university educational activity and are thus helped to reach higher social condition.

Sport A form of game in which the consequence is affected by physical skill.

Staff job In an organization, an informational or administrative job that supports the manufacturing, production, selling, or other primary activities of the organization.

Stage theory A theory suggesting that nations go through various systematic stages of development.

State The institutionalized, legal system of power within territorial limits.

State sector The sector of the economy controlled by local, state, or federal governments that supplies appurtenances and services under straight contract to that state.

State terrorism The use of torture, death squads, and disappearances past political states to intimidate citizens.

Condition A socially defined position in order that carries with it certain prescribed rights, obligations, and expected behaviors.

Status-attainment model A view of social mobility suggesting the importance of begetter's education, male parent's occupation, son's educational activity, and son's start chore for a man's developed status. (Early research was based simply on men.)

Status group People who share a social identity based on similar values and life-styles.

Status inconsistency May occur when an private occupies two or more unequal statuses in a society.

Stigmatization The process of spoiling a person's identity by labeling him or her in a negative way.

Structural change Demographic, economic, and rank-order changes in a society.

Structural-functional perspective 1 of the major theoretical perspectives in sociology, adult past Talcott Parsons: focuses on how the diverse parts of society fit together or suit to maintain the equilibrium of the whole.

Subculture A distinguishable grouping that shares a number of features with the dominant culture within which it exists while also having unique features such as language, customs, or values.

Subjective meanings The values and interpretations individuals place on their life situations and experiences; may vary from person to person.

Subjective social class A person's ain perception of his or her class position.

Suburb A adequately small community within an urban area that includes a central urban center.

Sunbelt The expanse south of the 37th parallel in the U.s.a., including Clark County in Nevada.

Superego In Freudian theory, the part of the personality construction that upholds the norms of gild.

Symbol Any object or sign that evokes a shared social response.

Symbolic interaction Interaction that relies on shared symbols such as language.

Symbolic interactionism An interpretive perspective, inspired by the work of George Herbert Mead, saying that individuals learn meanings through interaction with others and then organize their lives around these socially created meanings.

Taboo A strongly prohibited social exercise; the strongest form of social norm.

Technological determinism The belief that technological evolution shapes social life in rather fixed ways.

Engineering The practical applications of scientific knowledge.

Tension release theory A theory suggesting that sport serves as a form of social safety valve, assuasive individuals to vent their seething aggressions.

Terrorism An attack on people designed to frighten club and strength it to encounter the terrorists' demands.

Tertiary economical sector The sector of an economy that offers services to individuals too as to concern.

Theoretical arroyo A set of guiding ideas.

Theory A system of orienting ideas, concepts, and relationships that provides a manner of organizing the observable world.

Theory Ten A view of organizational beliefs suggesting that people hate their jobs, want to avoid responsibility, resist change, and do not care nearly organizational needs.

Theory Y A view of organizational behavior suggesting that people accept the want to work, to be creative, and to accept responsibleness for their jobs and for the organization.

Theory Z A grade of organizational culture that values long-term employment, trust, and shut personal relationships between workers and managers.

Total fertility rate An guess of the boilerplate number of children that would be built-in to each adult female over her reproductive life if current age-specific birth rates remained abiding.

Full institution A place where people spend 24 hours of every solar day for an extended part of their lives, cut off from the rest of guild and tightly controlled past the people in charge.

Totalitarianism A form of autocracy that involves the use of state power to control and regulate all phases of life.

Tournament selection An educational blueprint in which a continual process of selection serves to weed out candidates; winners motion on to the adjacent round of selection and losers are eliminated from the competition.

Tracking The practice of grouping students past ability, curriculum, or both.

Triad A group equanimous of three people.

Underemployment The hiring of people in jobs that are not customarily filled by individuals with their relatively loftier levels of experience or pedagogy.

Hole-and-corner economic system Exchanges of goods and services that occur outside the loonshit of the normal, regulated economic system and therefore escape official tape keeping.

Unit of measurement of assay Who or what is beingness studied in a piece of social research.

Urbanization The growth of cities.

Value-added theory A theory suggesting that many instances of collective behavior stand for efforts to change the social environment.

Values Strongly held general ideas that people share about what is skilful and bad, desirable or undesirable; values provide yardsticks for judging specific acts and goals.

Variable A logical set of attributes with dissimilar degrees of magnitude or unlike categories. For example, age is a variable on which people can be classified according to the number of years they have lived.

Verstehen The endeavor to understand social behavior in terms of the motives individuals bring to it.

Vertical integration A grade of concern organization that attempts to command the business environment by assuming control of ane or more than of its resources or business outlets.

Vertical mobility Movement of an individual or a group upward or downward, from one social condition to another.

Wealth The full value (minus debts) of what is endemic.

Weberian approach The views held by conflict theorists who, using the ideas of Max Weber, stress the significance of conflict in social life, especially conflict among condition groups such as those based on occupation, ethnic background, or religion.

White-collar law-breaking Crimes committed by "respectable" individuals, oftentimes while they exercise their occupations-- for example, embezzling coin or stealing computer time.

White ethnics White Americans who value and preserve aspects of their ethnic heritage.

Globe systems assay A form of sociological analysis that stresses understanding national beliefs in terms of historical and contemporary relationships among nations and societies .

Zero population growth (ZPG) The situation that occurs when the population of a nation or the earth remains stable from one year to the side by side.

© copyright 1996 Caroline Hodges Persell

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Source: https://www.asanet.org/sites/default/files/savvy/introtosociology/Documents/Glossary.html